An example of an environmental policy: population control to lionfish in the Caribbean Sea of Colombia
Hi, Everyone!
For the purpose of this post, I am going to explain the policies adopted in Colombia for the population control of lionfish in seawaters of the Caribbean Sea.
Invasive species are capable of competing with native organisms, altering habitats, reducing biodiversity, and even causing extinctions of indigenous plants and animals, generating extreme economic costs (Morris & Whitfield, 2009). Addressing this threat imposes the design and implementation of environmental policies at local, national, and regional levels.
Taking the latter into consideration, the red lionfish (Pterois volitans) or zebrafish is a venomous coral reef fish, mainly native to the Indo-Pacific region, but has become an invasive species in the Caribbean Sea, as well as along the East Coast of the United States and, recently, along the East Mediterranean (Semana, 2016; Semana, 2018). Living on average around 10 years, it has 18 large, venomous spines that protrude from its body, similar to a mane, making the fish inedible or deter most potential predators. Lionfish reproduce monthly and are able to disperse quickly, during their larval stage for expansion of their invasive region.
First introduced off the Florida coast in the 1980s, almost certainly from the aquarium trade, Pterois volitans has established as an important invasive species off the East Coast of the United States and in the Caribbean. About 93% of the invasive lionfish are red lionfish, and its population has grown by 700 % in some areas. There are not definitive predators of the lionfish (a likely consequence of their venomous spines) and larger Atlantic and Caribbean fish and sharks that should be able to eat the lionfish have not recognized them as prey, likely due to the novelty of the fish in the invaded areas.
With size up to 40 cm and the capacity to eat something 30 times their stomach volume, they prey on everything, and have a voracious appetite, breeding about 3 to 4 times faster than native fish species. Native reef fish take an average of 3-4 years to reach reproductive maturity, while lionfish take about 6 months. Lionfish are reproducing at an alarming rate, and they are eating the other fish before they are even able to reproduce. This situation has led to the urgency of promoting the harvest and consumption of lionfish in efforts to prevent further increases in their already high population densities (Morris & Whitfield, 2009; Macqueen, 2016).
In this scenario, a successful environmental policy on the lionfish issue must generate a framework to (i) promote collaboration between actors and sectors associated with this treat, its control, and management, assigning specific responsibilities of follow-up. (ii) Promote interchange of experiences, protocols, and tools. (iii) Reduce costs and avoiding duplicity of efforts via national and regional programs with shared resources. (iv) Guidance of researchers, donors and cooperates, with programs, initiatives, and projects for optimal results in the effort for species control. (v) Look for coherency and complementarity between all sectors and at all levels. (vi) Generate political and legislative actions required for supporting the strategies of control and management of the species. (vii) Promote binding actions in relation to national politics, law, and regulation for successful fighting of the lionfish treat (Rodriguez, Gonzalez, et al, 2014).
In Colombia, the lionfish affects the waters of the departments of Chocó, Guajira, Magdalena, Bolívar, and Atlántico; and they were first reported around Providence Island as of May 2009. With Resolution 675 of 2013, the Colombian Ministry of Environment (MADS) approved the fishing and consumption of lionfish (while prohibiting their use for aquariums or breeding), which have a high protein value, being also rich in phosphorous and Omega 3. Their parts, as colorful as they are, as useful for creating earrings and other handicrafts, and as a fertilizer. Contrary to common thinking, its venom (that cause painful wounds to anglers and swimmers, and even respiratory paralysis, circulatory deficiency, and fever) is denaturalized when cooking (MADS, 2012; INVEMAR, 2012; Las2orillas, 2013; Chica, 2018).
Under the campaign: “Support the conservation controlling and consuming lionfish”, proposed from the Caribbean Territorial Direction of the National Natural Parks of Colombia, with German cooperation; there are annual competitions of fishing and gastronomy of lionfish in the areas with the presence of this species. The same strategy exists in other countries, like Mexico and the Bahamas, where the lionfish decimated about 80% of indigenous species (El Tiempo, 2010; Chica, 2018). However, these measures are insufficient because control must be systematic and simultaneous in all the reefs, as successful experience has demonstrated in Belize, Curacao, and Bonaire (Carrere, 2018).
The management plan, adopted by the Ministry of Environment for the control of the lionfish, includes three main programs: (i) Generating knowledge about the biological and ecological adaptation of this species to the conditions of the Caribbean in Colombia. (ii) Creating management instruments giving parameters for the control of the species. (iii) Creating a divulgation and awareness campaign for the general population.
A critical challenge for controlling lionfish is their notoriety as poisonous fish. Painful but not lethal, lionfish neurotoxin effect ends when the fish is out of the water and are cut their dorsal and ventral spines. Hot water dissociates the protein toxin into amino acids (poisonous spines disintegrate themselves out of the water; Carrere, 2018; Paz, 2018).
Tourists and locals know about their sweet and delicious meat, rich in Omega 3 (with levels similar to salmon), and local restaurants do not offer lionfish. An immediate goal is to promote local entrepreneurship, for instance, in jewelry, getting locals more familiar with the species in order to propose a bigger extraction for other uses. In particular, it is essential that locals start to consume lionfish as food, boosting demand for restaurants, substituting unregulated fishing of grouper and snapper fish, both at risk of extinction, in part because of the presence of lionfish (Carrere, 2018; Paz, 2018).
Another big issue in the success of this strategy is to create economic incentives to catch lionfish for local anglers because their capture is not exactly easy. Apart from taking care of spines, lionfish are found at depth of more than 10 m, and the biggest specimens tend to go deeper (even, to 30 to 40 m). Hence, the capture of lionfish demands freediving (breath-hold) with rudimentary harpoons. Therefore, we need new techniques with more potential of efficiency (like fish traps), taking care of not sacrificing other species (that is why harpoon fishing is of standard use; Semana, 2016).
Therefore, the most critical challenge is to create a scalable market (in restaurants, and more important, supermarkets) for the consumption of lionfish, in a way that the demand for their meat becomes an incentive for anglers (Carrere, 2018; Paz, 2018; García, 2018), with consumer awareness for competitive pricing (García, 2018). From a business standpoint, is clear that lionfish requires nowadays particular protocols and expensive management, and furthermost, it is not a fishing resource (remember that their breeding is forbidden). Instead, it is only a hydrobiological resource, an invasive species for consumption for purposes of control (and hopefully, eradication). Hence, these protocols and technology, not enough known, are barriers to commercial distribution (Beleño, 2018).
Other initiatives must be to promote campaigns for fishing lionfish more frequently, hopefully on a weekly basis (García, 2018). In that direction, the project Invaluable Traps (trampas Invaluables) of Geometry Global Colombia for MADS, is an example of sustainable design of fishing apparel, made of recycled materials like plastic bottles (Geometry Global WPP – Middle Americas, 2015; El Ojo de Iberoamérica, 2015; Rodriguez, 2015).
In the areas of Bonaire where is applied the systematic model of control, the lionfish biome is 2.76 times lower than the one in the rest of the island. In addition, it is 4.14 times lower than the zones of Curacao without a lionfish control policy (Carrere, 2018). In Roatan Island, successful fishing has evolved into experiments feeding lionfish to sharks and grouper fish (a strategy with possible side effects, making predators more aggressive; Semana, 2016).
Finally, we need more research, especially for understanding the critical density of the species, calculating the biome of prey fish, and comparing it with lionfish consumption rate; and for designing more efficient (while sustainable) methods (biodegradable fishing traps) for capturing lionfish, in deeper waters (50 m, or even lower). In Colombia, there are official courses specifically designed for training and certification of local anglers (Arcieri, 2016; SENA, 2016; Semana, 2018).
References:
Arcieri, V. (2016, June 30). Sena lanza estrategias para capacitar en la pesca del pez león. El Heraldo. Retrieved from: https://www.elheraldo.co/region/sena-lanza-estrategias-para-la-pesca-del-pez-leon-en-el-caribe-269170
Beleño, I. (2018, May 23) No hay quien se coma al pez león y su depredador natural está casi extinto. Agronegocios. Retrieved from: https://www.agronegocios.co/aprenda/no-hay-quien-se-coma-al-pez-leon-y-su-depredador-natural-esta-casi-extinto-2730155
Carrere, M. (2018, August 28) Biólogos crean joyas con pez León para combatir su invasión en el Caribe colombiano. Mongabay Latam. Retrieved from: https://es.mongabay.com/2018/08/oceanos-plaga-pez-leon-en-caribe/
Chica, A. (2018, December 22) El curioso torneo que intenta extinguir una bella especie marina en el Caribe. Infobae. Retrieved from: https://www.infobae.com/america/colombia/2018/12/22/el-curioso-torneo-que-intenta-extinguir-una-bella-especie-marina-en-el-caribe/
El Ojo de Iberoamérica (2015, November 4) “Trampas Invaluables”, de Geometry Global Colombia Gran Ojo Sustentable. Retrieved from: https://www.elojodeiberoamerica.com/trampas-invaluables-de-geometry-global-colombia-gran-ojo-sustentable/
El Tiempo (2010, May 1). Pez león, una amenaza creciente para los arrecifes del Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-7690357
García, C. (2018, October 5) El pez león: ¿qué falta para ganar la batalla? Semana. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/el-pez-leon-que-falta-para-ganar-la-batalla/41824
Geometry Global WPP – Middle Americas (2015, June 11) Trampas invaluables – Pez León [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dHGwAYtS7SU&feature=youtu.be
INVEMAR (2012, January) Plan para el manejo y control del pez león Pterois volitans en el Caribe colombiano 2012 – 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.invemar.org.co/redcostera1/invemar/portalinvasoresmarinos/docs/10059Plan_manejo_control_pez_leon.pdf
Las2orillas (2013, July 3). A comer pez león en el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.las2orillas.co/comer-pez-leon/
Macqueen, K. (2016, August 29) Saving the Reef: Lionfish in Florida. National Geographic Society Newsroom. Retrieved from: https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2016/08/29/saving-the-reef-lionfish-in-florida/
Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible – MADS (2012, August 24). Colombia puso en funcionamiento Plan para Manejo y Control del Pez León en el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.minambiente.gov.co/index.php/component/content/article?id=1460:el-uso-sostenible-de-los-bosques-prioridad-de-minambiente-654
Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible – MADS (2013, July 2). Minambiente adopta plan de control y protocolo de captura del pez León para el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.minambiente.gov.co/index.php/component/content/article/2-noticias/1082-el-uso-sostenible-de-los-bosques-prioridad-de-minambiente-413
Morris, J. & Whitfield, P. (2009) Biology, Ecology, Control and Management of the Invasive Indo-Pacific Lionfish: An Updated Integral Assessment. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 99, 57. Retrieved from: http://aquaticcommons.org/2847/1/NCCOS_TM_99.pdf
Paz, A. (2018, November 12) Colombia: Torneos para capturar al pez león y controlar su voraz invasión. Mongabay Latam. Retrieved from: https://es.mongabay.com/2018/11/pez-leon-torneos-captura-colombia/
Racines, K. (2019, November) Pez león: el forastero indeseable (y sabroso). Bienestar Colsánitas, 166 (November 2019). Retrieved from: https://www.bienestarcolsanitas.com/articulo/pez-leon.html
Rodríguez, C. (2015, July 1) Campaña colombiana para incentivar consume del pez león gana premio en Cannes Lions. El Espectador. Retrieved from: https://blogs.elespectador.com/actualidad/el-rio/campana-colombiana-para-incentivar-consumo-del-pez-leon-gana-premio-en-cannes-lions
Rodriguez, C., González, M., et al. (2014) Estrategia regional para el control del Pez León en el arrecife mesoamericano. DIPESCA Guatemala. Retrieved from: http://www.car-spaw-rac.org/IMG/pdf/mar_subestrategia_regional_para_el_control_del_pez_lecn.pdf
Semana (2009, December 15) Pez León ataca en el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.semana.com/vida-moderna/ciencia/articulo/pez-leon-ataca-caribe-colombiano/111041-3/
Semana (2016, April 22). La lucha contra la invasión del pez león en el Caribe. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/pez-leon-la-lucha-contra-esta-especie-invasora-en-el-caribe/34980
Semana (2016, June 24) El peligroso pez león ahora amenaza el Mediterráneo. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/impacto/articulo/el-peligroso-pez-leon-ahora-amenaza-el-mediterraneo/35461
Semana (2018, April 16) Chipre, en primera línea a la invasión del pez león en el Mediterráneo. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/impacto/articulo/chipre-en-primera-linea-a-la-invasion-del-pez-leon-en-el-mediterraneo/40850
Semana (2018, May 10) El pez león: ¿qué falta para ganar la batalla? Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/el-pez-leon-que-falta-para-ganar-la-batalla/41824
Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje – SENA (2016, June 28). El pez león no es tan malo como lo “pintan”; el SENA se lanza a su caza. Retrieved from: https://www.sena.edu.co/es-co/Noticias/Paginas/noticia.aspx?IdNoticia=1061
For the purpose of this post, I am going to explain the policies adopted in Colombia for the population control of lionfish in seawaters of the Caribbean Sea.
Invasive species are capable of competing with native organisms, altering habitats, reducing biodiversity, and even causing extinctions of indigenous plants and animals, generating extreme economic costs (Morris & Whitfield, 2009). Addressing this threat imposes the design and implementation of environmental policies at local, national, and regional levels.
Taking the latter into consideration, the red lionfish (Pterois volitans) or zebrafish is a venomous coral reef fish, mainly native to the Indo-Pacific region, but has become an invasive species in the Caribbean Sea, as well as along the East Coast of the United States and, recently, along the East Mediterranean (Semana, 2016; Semana, 2018). Living on average around 10 years, it has 18 large, venomous spines that protrude from its body, similar to a mane, making the fish inedible or deter most potential predators. Lionfish reproduce monthly and are able to disperse quickly, during their larval stage for expansion of their invasive region.
First introduced off the Florida coast in the 1980s, almost certainly from the aquarium trade, Pterois volitans has established as an important invasive species off the East Coast of the United States and in the Caribbean. About 93% of the invasive lionfish are red lionfish, and its population has grown by 700 % in some areas. There are not definitive predators of the lionfish (a likely consequence of their venomous spines) and larger Atlantic and Caribbean fish and sharks that should be able to eat the lionfish have not recognized them as prey, likely due to the novelty of the fish in the invaded areas.
With size up to 40 cm and the capacity to eat something 30 times their stomach volume, they prey on everything, and have a voracious appetite, breeding about 3 to 4 times faster than native fish species. Native reef fish take an average of 3-4 years to reach reproductive maturity, while lionfish take about 6 months. Lionfish are reproducing at an alarming rate, and they are eating the other fish before they are even able to reproduce. This situation has led to the urgency of promoting the harvest and consumption of lionfish in efforts to prevent further increases in their already high population densities (Morris & Whitfield, 2009; Macqueen, 2016).
In this scenario, a successful environmental policy on the lionfish issue must generate a framework to (i) promote collaboration between actors and sectors associated with this treat, its control, and management, assigning specific responsibilities of follow-up. (ii) Promote interchange of experiences, protocols, and tools. (iii) Reduce costs and avoiding duplicity of efforts via national and regional programs with shared resources. (iv) Guidance of researchers, donors and cooperates, with programs, initiatives, and projects for optimal results in the effort for species control. (v) Look for coherency and complementarity between all sectors and at all levels. (vi) Generate political and legislative actions required for supporting the strategies of control and management of the species. (vii) Promote binding actions in relation to national politics, law, and regulation for successful fighting of the lionfish treat (Rodriguez, Gonzalez, et al, 2014).
In Colombia, the lionfish affects the waters of the departments of Chocó, Guajira, Magdalena, Bolívar, and Atlántico; and they were first reported around Providence Island as of May 2009. With Resolution 675 of 2013, the Colombian Ministry of Environment (MADS) approved the fishing and consumption of lionfish (while prohibiting their use for aquariums or breeding), which have a high protein value, being also rich in phosphorous and Omega 3. Their parts, as colorful as they are, as useful for creating earrings and other handicrafts, and as a fertilizer. Contrary to common thinking, its venom (that cause painful wounds to anglers and swimmers, and even respiratory paralysis, circulatory deficiency, and fever) is denaturalized when cooking (MADS, 2012; INVEMAR, 2012; Las2orillas, 2013; Chica, 2018).
Under the campaign: “Support the conservation controlling and consuming lionfish”, proposed from the Caribbean Territorial Direction of the National Natural Parks of Colombia, with German cooperation; there are annual competitions of fishing and gastronomy of lionfish in the areas with the presence of this species. The same strategy exists in other countries, like Mexico and the Bahamas, where the lionfish decimated about 80% of indigenous species (El Tiempo, 2010; Chica, 2018). However, these measures are insufficient because control must be systematic and simultaneous in all the reefs, as successful experience has demonstrated in Belize, Curacao, and Bonaire (Carrere, 2018).
The management plan, adopted by the Ministry of Environment for the control of the lionfish, includes three main programs: (i) Generating knowledge about the biological and ecological adaptation of this species to the conditions of the Caribbean in Colombia. (ii) Creating management instruments giving parameters for the control of the species. (iii) Creating a divulgation and awareness campaign for the general population.
A critical challenge for controlling lionfish is their notoriety as poisonous fish. Painful but not lethal, lionfish neurotoxin effect ends when the fish is out of the water and are cut their dorsal and ventral spines. Hot water dissociates the protein toxin into amino acids (poisonous spines disintegrate themselves out of the water; Carrere, 2018; Paz, 2018).
Tourists and locals know about their sweet and delicious meat, rich in Omega 3 (with levels similar to salmon), and local restaurants do not offer lionfish. An immediate goal is to promote local entrepreneurship, for instance, in jewelry, getting locals more familiar with the species in order to propose a bigger extraction for other uses. In particular, it is essential that locals start to consume lionfish as food, boosting demand for restaurants, substituting unregulated fishing of grouper and snapper fish, both at risk of extinction, in part because of the presence of lionfish (Carrere, 2018; Paz, 2018).
Another big issue in the success of this strategy is to create economic incentives to catch lionfish for local anglers because their capture is not exactly easy. Apart from taking care of spines, lionfish are found at depth of more than 10 m, and the biggest specimens tend to go deeper (even, to 30 to 40 m). Hence, the capture of lionfish demands freediving (breath-hold) with rudimentary harpoons. Therefore, we need new techniques with more potential of efficiency (like fish traps), taking care of not sacrificing other species (that is why harpoon fishing is of standard use; Semana, 2016).
Therefore, the most critical challenge is to create a scalable market (in restaurants, and more important, supermarkets) for the consumption of lionfish, in a way that the demand for their meat becomes an incentive for anglers (Carrere, 2018; Paz, 2018; García, 2018), with consumer awareness for competitive pricing (García, 2018). From a business standpoint, is clear that lionfish requires nowadays particular protocols and expensive management, and furthermost, it is not a fishing resource (remember that their breeding is forbidden). Instead, it is only a hydrobiological resource, an invasive species for consumption for purposes of control (and hopefully, eradication). Hence, these protocols and technology, not enough known, are barriers to commercial distribution (Beleño, 2018).
Other initiatives must be to promote campaigns for fishing lionfish more frequently, hopefully on a weekly basis (García, 2018). In that direction, the project Invaluable Traps (trampas Invaluables) of Geometry Global Colombia for MADS, is an example of sustainable design of fishing apparel, made of recycled materials like plastic bottles (Geometry Global WPP – Middle Americas, 2015; El Ojo de Iberoamérica, 2015; Rodriguez, 2015).
In the areas of Bonaire where is applied the systematic model of control, the lionfish biome is 2.76 times lower than the one in the rest of the island. In addition, it is 4.14 times lower than the zones of Curacao without a lionfish control policy (Carrere, 2018). In Roatan Island, successful fishing has evolved into experiments feeding lionfish to sharks and grouper fish (a strategy with possible side effects, making predators more aggressive; Semana, 2016).
Finally, we need more research, especially for understanding the critical density of the species, calculating the biome of prey fish, and comparing it with lionfish consumption rate; and for designing more efficient (while sustainable) methods (biodegradable fishing traps) for capturing lionfish, in deeper waters (50 m, or even lower). In Colombia, there are official courses specifically designed for training and certification of local anglers (Arcieri, 2016; SENA, 2016; Semana, 2018).
References:
Arcieri, V. (2016, June 30). Sena lanza estrategias para capacitar en la pesca del pez león. El Heraldo. Retrieved from: https://www.elheraldo.co/region/sena-lanza-estrategias-para-la-pesca-del-pez-leon-en-el-caribe-269170
Beleño, I. (2018, May 23) No hay quien se coma al pez león y su depredador natural está casi extinto. Agronegocios. Retrieved from: https://www.agronegocios.co/aprenda/no-hay-quien-se-coma-al-pez-leon-y-su-depredador-natural-esta-casi-extinto-2730155
Carrere, M. (2018, August 28) Biólogos crean joyas con pez León para combatir su invasión en el Caribe colombiano. Mongabay Latam. Retrieved from: https://es.mongabay.com/2018/08/oceanos-plaga-pez-leon-en-caribe/
Chica, A. (2018, December 22) El curioso torneo que intenta extinguir una bella especie marina en el Caribe. Infobae. Retrieved from: https://www.infobae.com/america/colombia/2018/12/22/el-curioso-torneo-que-intenta-extinguir-una-bella-especie-marina-en-el-caribe/
El Ojo de Iberoamérica (2015, November 4) “Trampas Invaluables”, de Geometry Global Colombia Gran Ojo Sustentable. Retrieved from: https://www.elojodeiberoamerica.com/trampas-invaluables-de-geometry-global-colombia-gran-ojo-sustentable/
El Tiempo (2010, May 1). Pez león, una amenaza creciente para los arrecifes del Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-7690357
García, C. (2018, October 5) El pez león: ¿qué falta para ganar la batalla? Semana. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/el-pez-leon-que-falta-para-ganar-la-batalla/41824
Geometry Global WPP – Middle Americas (2015, June 11) Trampas invaluables – Pez León [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dHGwAYtS7SU&feature=youtu.be
INVEMAR (2012, January) Plan para el manejo y control del pez león Pterois volitans en el Caribe colombiano 2012 – 2014. Retrieved from: http://www.invemar.org.co/redcostera1/invemar/portalinvasoresmarinos/docs/10059Plan_manejo_control_pez_leon.pdf
Las2orillas (2013, July 3). A comer pez león en el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.las2orillas.co/comer-pez-leon/
Macqueen, K. (2016, August 29) Saving the Reef: Lionfish in Florida. National Geographic Society Newsroom. Retrieved from: https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2016/08/29/saving-the-reef-lionfish-in-florida/
Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible – MADS (2012, August 24). Colombia puso en funcionamiento Plan para Manejo y Control del Pez León en el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.minambiente.gov.co/index.php/component/content/article?id=1460:el-uso-sostenible-de-los-bosques-prioridad-de-minambiente-654
Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible – MADS (2013, July 2). Minambiente adopta plan de control y protocolo de captura del pez León para el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.minambiente.gov.co/index.php/component/content/article/2-noticias/1082-el-uso-sostenible-de-los-bosques-prioridad-de-minambiente-413
Morris, J. & Whitfield, P. (2009) Biology, Ecology, Control and Management of the Invasive Indo-Pacific Lionfish: An Updated Integral Assessment. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 99, 57. Retrieved from: http://aquaticcommons.org/2847/1/NCCOS_TM_99.pdf
Paz, A. (2018, November 12) Colombia: Torneos para capturar al pez león y controlar su voraz invasión. Mongabay Latam. Retrieved from: https://es.mongabay.com/2018/11/pez-leon-torneos-captura-colombia/
Racines, K. (2019, November) Pez león: el forastero indeseable (y sabroso). Bienestar Colsánitas, 166 (November 2019). Retrieved from: https://www.bienestarcolsanitas.com/articulo/pez-leon.html
Rodríguez, C. (2015, July 1) Campaña colombiana para incentivar consume del pez león gana premio en Cannes Lions. El Espectador. Retrieved from: https://blogs.elespectador.com/actualidad/el-rio/campana-colombiana-para-incentivar-consumo-del-pez-leon-gana-premio-en-cannes-lions
Rodriguez, C., González, M., et al. (2014) Estrategia regional para el control del Pez León en el arrecife mesoamericano. DIPESCA Guatemala. Retrieved from: http://www.car-spaw-rac.org/IMG/pdf/mar_subestrategia_regional_para_el_control_del_pez_lecn.pdf
Semana (2009, December 15) Pez León ataca en el Caribe colombiano. Retrieved from: https://www.semana.com/vida-moderna/ciencia/articulo/pez-leon-ataca-caribe-colombiano/111041-3/
Semana (2016, April 22). La lucha contra la invasión del pez león en el Caribe. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/pez-leon-la-lucha-contra-esta-especie-invasora-en-el-caribe/34980
Semana (2016, June 24) El peligroso pez león ahora amenaza el Mediterráneo. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/impacto/articulo/el-peligroso-pez-leon-ahora-amenaza-el-mediterraneo/35461
Semana (2018, April 16) Chipre, en primera línea a la invasión del pez león en el Mediterráneo. Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/impacto/articulo/chipre-en-primera-linea-a-la-invasion-del-pez-leon-en-el-mediterraneo/40850
Semana (2018, May 10) El pez león: ¿qué falta para ganar la batalla? Retrieved from: https://sostenibilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/el-pez-leon-que-falta-para-ganar-la-batalla/41824
Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje – SENA (2016, June 28). El pez león no es tan malo como lo “pintan”; el SENA se lanza a su caza. Retrieved from: https://www.sena.edu.co/es-co/Noticias/Paginas/noticia.aspx?IdNoticia=1061
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